Table of Contents
2.1 Counter-proliferation activities. 3
2.2 Non-proliferation activities. 4
2.3 United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540. 6
2.4 Combating nuclear terrorism.. 6
3.1 Improvised explosive devices. 9
3.2 Use of internet in bombings reduction. 10
3.3 International cooperation. 11
3.3.1 Establishment of universal instruments related to cyber-crime. 13
4.2 Chemical and heat-producing weapons. 16
1. Introduction
In the article titled, de-territorialized threats and global politics: geopolitics and risk society, Tuathail (1998) suggests that with globalization, more cooperation is needed among member states to deal with various security and environmental issues. Aware of the transnational dangers resulting from the quidity of borders, nations have been forced to adopt a common front towards curbing terrorism, environmental degradation, ethnic nationalism, and other security challenges. This paper examines ways in which destructive technologies will lead to greater international cooperation.
2. Weapons of mass destruction
In the past few decades, the possibility for the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction has become a reality. The term weapons of mass destruction have become a common security discourse and it has been existence since the 1940s (Nash, 1975). The term was heavily used during the clod war era and later on during the 2003 Iraq invasion. It is used to describe the atomic explosive, radioactive, biological and chemical weapons, which have a destructive effect.
2.1 Counter-proliferation activities
It requires international partnerships to prevent the proliferation of destructive weapons to hostile states. One of the counter-proliferation components being used by the major actors is the deterrence through the deployment of military forces and declaratory policies. In addition, the main actors have enhanced their intelligence, surveillance, and domestic law enforcement capabilities to enhance detection of the Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD). The proliferation of the WMD is also being prevented through coalitions. The purpose of these coalitions is to prevent the transfer and transportation of the WMD-related goods (Pitt, 2002). Another major approach being used is the implementation of the export controls to ensure hostile countries do not acquire WMD.
The cooperation between various countries has led to the establishment of the Proliferation Security Initiative. More than 80 countries are committed to the initiative, and so far it has proved successful in the interdiction of equipment related to missile and nuclear activities (Bentley, 2013). However, the implementation of the initiative requires greater cooperation from all countries and more commitment to enforce national and international laws. International cooperation will also be required in the expansion of the initiative for interdiction of the financial payments between the proliferators and the suppliers. Indeed, according to Bentley (2013) disruption of the financial flows between the proliferators and the supplier countries is one of the strategies that have proved effective. However, to achieve this objective there is a need for more coordination between security and financial agencies in a global level. Some of the measures that could be used to disrupt the financial flow include travel bans and freezing of the proliferators’ assets. Another strategy being used is the use of sanctions. Sanctions are already being applied in Iran, to prevent the country from possessing nuclear weapons. The sanctions have affected business and other economic sectors in the country, and have been effective in forcing the Tehran regime to cease the nuclear program. However, for the sanctions to work, international cooperation will play a key role, not only in Iran but other hostile states.
2.2 Non-proliferation activities
The main actors are committed to using a diplomatic approach to achieve their non-proliferation goals. In this regard, there is a growing consensus to prevent the proliferation of the weapons of mass destruction by inducing the proliferant states to end their WMD programs. To prevent acquisition of WMD by hostile countries, a number of treaties have also been formed including the Non-proliferation of the Nuclear Weapons treaty. The aim of the treaty is to reverse the spread of the military nuclear capabilities and impede the possession of nuclear weapons outsides the NPT. Multilateral regimes such as the International Atomic Energy Agency have also been formed to regulate the acquisition of the WMD and monitor nuclear-related activities. However, for the agency to operate as intended, cooperation between member states is required. The efforts against the spread of the WMD have also led to the formation of the Biological Weapons Convention and the Chemical Weapons Conventions (Graebner, Dean, and Siracusa, 2008). International cooperation is required to ensure that the provisions of these treaties are observed by the state parties and for the enforcement of the punitive measures in case of the breach of the law.
The multilateralist approach which has been adopted by various countries has already proved useful in maintaining international order. At the same time, diplomatic preventive measures have proved helpful in curbing the spread of the WMDs. So far, diplomatic efforts have been used in North Korea and Iran to pressure the proliferators to abandon their programs. In the Iranian case, the political dialogue was widely adopted to force the government to stop the enrichment programs. The negotiations with the Iranian government are still ongoing, and it is expected the international countries could use to force if the diplomatic strategy fails. To further prevent the spread of the WMD international cooperation will be required. In addition, () observes that greater cooperation will be needed in universalizing laws related to biological and chemical weapons. Most importantly, enforcement of the existing laws and treaties will required the cooperation will require the input of all the countries including the developing ones.
2.3 United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540
Under this resolution, countries are empowered to develop and implement measures aimed at preventing the spread of the WMD. However, as expected, some of the countries especially those in the developing world, lack the capacity to implement the resolution. As a result, the developed countries are mandated to help such nations with the necessary resources to ensure they submit their reports. According to the resolution, countries are required to show their capabilities in regard to the implementation of the border, export and transshipment, and financial controls. It is expected that with time, the resolution will become a legitimate legal and political standard, which brings all the countries together in the prevention of WMD proliferation. This strategy of threat reduction is already being used in Russia through the Nunn-Lunar program. The program seeks to reduce the large quantity of the soviet’s WMD and missile-related materials. In future, more countries will enroll in global partnerships to secure WMD-related materials, reduce fissile materials and minimize the use of highly-enriched uranium. Greater cooperation will also be required in helping countries to develop recycle and fuel treatment technologies that are more proliferation-resistant.
2.4 Combating nuclear terrorism
From the graph below it is apparent that incidences involving theft of nuclear and radioactive materials have been reported.
Adopted from Hanley (2005)
In future, global initiatives will be necessary in helping countries to develop capacities to combat the theft of nuclear materials. Already, the cooperation between various countries has led to the establishment of the legal frameworks such as the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism and the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material and Nuclear Facilities. These frameworks are geared towards improving physical protection of nuclear and radioactive materials, securing the civilian nuclear facilities, development of the necessary laws and regulations, and for information-sharing. The Global Initiative to combating nuclear terrorism not only requires the participation of the individual countries but also the private sector. According to Bentley (2013) the private sector will play an important role of securing the transit points and protecting the civilian nuclear facilities. Already the initiative has proved successful in removing weapons-usable material from vulnerable areas and reducing the stockpile of old missiles.
3. Bombings and terrorism
One of the common tools used by the terrorists is bombs which are delivered by the suicide bombers or are planted at strategic places to inflict maximum harm to the victims. Terrorists mainly target civilian traveling by air and road (see the graph below).
Adopted from Sanders (2005)
In the UK bombings have been quite common and a perfect example is the Clerkenwell bombing which led to the death of 12 people while injuring a hundred others. Likewise, in 1919 the Ireland Republican Army denoted 59 bombs within London. Between 1988 and 2001, the number of bombings targeting commercial centers, political figures, and military bases intensified (Hewitt, 2003). Within time, the IRA attacks have become bigger and more destructive as evidenced by the bombing that took place in 1990 leading to the evacuation of the entire trading floor (Miller, 2005). Another such attack happened in 1993 at the Bishop’s Gate in the City of London (Hamm, 2002). Bombings are not limited to the UK but have occurred in many other places including the United States. For instance, multiple bombings at Al-Adnaniyah and Al-Qataniyah led to 520 deaths while 1500 persons were injured (Kellner, 2007).
3.1 Improvised explosive devices
Explosive devices refer to bombs and destructive tools that have the capacity to incapacitate and injure a great number of victims. They are used by the terrorist and insurgents and they come in many forms including small pipe bombs. They are delivered by vehicles and are made of explosive chemicals such as ammonium nitrate and urea nitrate. An example of the terrorist IED attack occurred on April 19th in 1999 at Oklahoma. A truck carrying a truck bomb exploded near the federal building (Kellner, 2007). The IED device which was made of ammonium nitrate fertilizer and nitromethane led to the death of 169 victims. Another serious attack occurred on the London transportation system on July 7th, 2005 (Kellner, 2007). The IED attack led to 52 deaths while hundreds were injured. A more serious attack occurred on March 11th 2004 in Madrid (Kellner, 2007). The IEDs were made from bags stuffed with explosives and metal fragments and the event led to the death of 191 people while 1,800 others were injured (Kellner, 2007). The IED attacks not injure innocent victims but also inflict extensive damage to building and public infrastructure. For instance, the IED attacks may lead to the disruption of the power and water systems hence inconveniencing the local businesses.
Terrorist bombings and attacks have negative effect on the affected economies. Just to illustrate further, the September 11th attacks led to huge economic effects resulting from the loss of revenue, business relocation and fall in property values. In addition, the government spent huge resources in rehabilitating the public infrastructure including the damaged underground system. The negative effects of the attack were also felt in the tourism where 25,000 jobs and $13 billion were lost (Kellner, 2007).
3.2 Use of internet in bombings reduction
. The internet has had major impact on the global business and is constantly used for communicational over the world. While the internet can be used to coordinate business activities, it is also being increasingly used by the terrorists to plan bomb attacks in many parts of the world. According to Stern (2000) terrorists used various tools such as chats, e-mail, and message boards to communicate with each and share vital information. Terrorists have also launched websites which serve as the virtual training grounds and offer the members information related to bomb-making. The websites also contain host messages and propaganda videos to motivate the members and to extend the recruitment and fundraising networks. One such network is the As-sahad, the Al-Qaeda’s media arm, which uses the internet and the technology to post footages of roadside bombings. The importance of the internet is well captured by Stern (2000) who observes that it provides the terrorists with a wide audience. At the same time, terrorists have developed sophisticated encryption tools and creative techniques to communicate information in cell groups while offering them a secure means of correspondence. A common technique, used by the terrorists is steganography, which entails using hidden messages in graphic files and email drafts. For communication purposes, some of the terrorist groups are using encryption programs which are then released on the websites. A perfect example is the Mujahedeen Secrets 2 which has encryption capabilities and is deigned to protect the identities and the locations of the terrorists. While internet is used by the terrorist to coordinate bomb attacks, it also provides countries with a perfect opportunity to fight crime. In particular, countries can use the internet facilities to track terrorist activities and come up with innovative strategies of tackling the vice.
3.3 International cooperation
In response to the international terrorism, nations have committed funds towards closing down terrorist sites. At the same time, governments have established agencies to track terrorist groups and individual members. In the UK, the government has increased the funding following the Woolwich attack. Likewise, in the US, the government is committed towards reducing terrorist attacks and apprehending terrorists living the in the country and abroad. As earlier indicated, terrorists use various tools to plan and coordinate terrorist activities. Aware of these facts, countries around the globe have increased their efforts towards collecting data for counter-terrorism purposes. Law enforcement and intelligence agencies all over the world are already cooperating towards developing tools to proactively detect and prevent terrorist activities.
One perfect way in which countries are cooperating to combat terrorism is by establishing online discussions to counter propaganda videos released by the terrorists. The counter-narratives are offered through technology and aim to highlight alternatives to violent activities while urging the members from enlisting in cell groups. Another example of a global initiative is the Center for Strategic Counterterrorism Communications whose purpose is to reduce radicalization and extremist violence by countering propaganda. Using a wide range of communication technologies, the Center has succeeded in countering advertisements promoting extremist violence in the Arabian Peninsula. The counter-narrative campaign has been expanded to include international agencies and commitment from the governments.
In response to the increasing terrorist activities, countries all over the world have dedicated their efforts towards eradicating the vice. The fight against terrorism has taken an international dimension, whereby countries have pledged to commit resources in the fight against the vice. Indeed, as the US president Barrack Obama indicated, the global fight against terrorism is no longer a bounder-less war, instead, it will require the cooperation of all countries. Global cooperation against terrorism is already a reality as evidenced by the initiation of the international military campaign. The campaign was initiated following the 11th September 2001 terrorist attacks. The US government under the leadership of the U.S. president George Bush and in cooperation with the UK and NATO countries developed a plan to diminish the underlying conditions that promote terrorists. These partners also initiated a global strategy to identify, locate and demolish terrorists and deny them the necessary funds required to sustain their terrorist activities.
Despite these efforts, the internet provides terrorists with many benefits. For instance, the speed, global reach and the anonymity associated with the internet use, ensure that the terrorists are able to quickly preach their propaganda to as many people as possible. Individual countries may also find it hard tracking individual terrorists, hence the need for global cooperation towards eliminating the vice. The global cooperation towards combating terrorism is being promoted in the following fronts.
3.3.1 Establishment of universal instruments related to cyber-crime
Countries are increasing their combined efforts by providing extradition and mutual legal assistance in cases related to terrorism. One of the major legal frameworks being used by countries is the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime which requires the cooperation of the individual member states in combating terrorism and other transnational organized crimes. The union requires the member countries to establish compatible legal mechanisms and universal counter-terrorism instruments. Another such international union, is the Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime which encourages cooperation through police and other agencies. The parties in this convention are mandated to share information related to cyber-terrorism and given the dangers associated with terrorism it is expected that the countries will continue to embrace this initiative.
To improve global cooperation, the UK had increased its police and judicial cooperation with the United States. Through agreement the two countries are committed towards sharing strategic information and personal information related to terrorism. In addition, the two states have established treaties to provide extradition and legal assistance. According to Pastor (2009) this treaty helps the two countries to effectively combat cyber-terrorism by simplifying the extradition process, promoting information sharing and enhancing prosecutorial cooperation. Another important step in the fight against cyber-terrorism is the tracking and suppressing terrorist financing. As indicated earlier, terrorists used technological tools such as the internet to collect funds from the sympathizers all over the world. In a bid to track and prevent terrorist financing, member countries are improving their cooperation through international agreements. For instance, countries have formed jointed efforts to improving international financial investigative tools. Through enhanced collaboration, member countries have worked together towards designating terrorist individuals and groups. According to the existing legal framework, for an individual or a terrorist group to be removed from the list, there must be a unanimous agreement among all the member countries. As a result of the increasing partnership between countries some of the terrorists groups such as the Kurdistan Worker’s Party and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia have been added to the terrorist list. However, to ensure these groups do not access the required financing, global cooperation is required.
3.3.2 Sharing of data
The internet has made it possible for the terrorist to clandestinely perform terrorist activities, an event which calls for greater partnership. Aware of this fact, the US and the EU countries have recognized the importance of sharing information by establishing the necessary agreements. At the same time, governments are improving the investigative capabilities of their security agencies. Just to illustrate, with the cooperation from other intelligence agencies, the U.S. National Security Agency has initiated surveillance activities. However, there have been privacy concerns about the PRISM programs and unless such concerns are addressed, the international counter-terrorism activities are likely to continue.
4. Global climate
Scientists suggest that the planetary ecosystem is changing as result of accumulation of greenhouse gases. One of the common sources of the greenhouse gases are the industries and it is for this reason that countries have committed to cutting down industrial emissions and reduce carbon foot print. According to Ruddiman (2005) the increase in the GHG emissions is associated with the industrial revolution which started in Britain in 1700s. Factory facilities and machinery has also led to the depletion of natural resources, leaving the environment permanently damaged. Another likely cause of the greenhouse gases emissions is the nuclear weapons.
4.1 Nuclear weapons
According to Weart (2012), a major nuclear exchange could negatively affect climate change. Weart (2012) uses the example of the nuclear exchange between Pakistan and India which led to a rise in temperature around the Asian Monsoon regions. The intense heat generated by the nuclear weapons and the smoke resulting from the burning of the building would drift into the stratosphere. Air pollution also occurs during the development and testing of all aspects related to military weapons. Nuclear weapon testing has the most adverse effects by releasing smoke and heat into the planet’s systems. However as indicated on the graph below, nuclear testing activities have decreased tremendously. Testing of the artillery shells, bombs and chemicals also affects the quality of the air.
Adopted from Weart (2013)
4.2 Chemical and heat-producing weapons
Chemical weapons were used extensively during the WW2 and most recently in the Iraq-Iran war. The chemical weapons not only pollute the air but also cause deaths and injuries. Use of incendiary bombs has been found to produce firestorms which lead to air pollution. The available literature has also shows that during the World War I, World War II, the Spanish civil war, and the war of Ethiopia, temperatures increased dramatically due to the extensive use of ballistic missiles, flying bombs and atomic bombs. International cooperation will also be necessary in the development of environmentally friendly technology and:
- Regulating the use of destructive technologies
- Development and deployment of new technologies (Victor et al, 2005)
5. Conclusion
The international security is threatened by the proliferation of WMDs in the hostile states. In response, the international community has adopted counter-proliferation strategies whose successful implementation requires the participation of all countries. International cooperation will particularly be important in putting pressure on non-compliant states and putting into place effective monitoring mechanisms. The available literature has also established that international peace and order is under threat from bombs and explosive devices. To combat the vice, countries have adopted a common approach by establishing the necessary anti-terrorist laws and by establishing legally binding pacts. International cooperation will remain vital in tracking and profiling terrorists and cell groups and prevention of terrorist activities. In addition, the global climate is threatened by heat-producing weapons and nuclear testing activities.
Reference list
Bentley, M., 2013. War and/of Worlds: Constructing WMD in U.S. Foreign Policy. Security Studies, 22, 68–97.
Graebner, N. A., Dean, B. and Siracusa, M., 2008. Reagan, Bush, Gorbachev: Revisiting the End of the Cold War. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University
Hamm, M., 2002. In Bad Company: America’s Terrorist Underground. Boston: Northeastern University Press
Hanley, C., 2005. Nuclear security is up, smuggling’s down, but terrorism’s ultimate nightmare lingers on. San Diego, CA: Associated press
Hewitt, C., 2003. Understanding Terrorism in America: From the Klan to Al Qaeda. London; New York: Routledge
Kellner, D., 2007. Guys and Guns Amok: Domestic Terrorism and School Shootings from the Oklahoma City Bombing to the Virginia Tech Massacre. Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers
Miller, R., 2005. Writing at the End of the World. New York: University of Pittsburgh Press
Nash, T., 1975. Nuclear Weapons and International Behaviour. Kluwer Academic Publishers
Pastor, J. F., 2009. Terrorism & Public Safety Policing: Implications of the Obama Presidency. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.
Pitt, W.R., 2002. War On Iraq: What Team Bush Doesn’t Want You to Know? New York: Context Books
Ruddiman, W. F., 2005. Plows, plagues, and petroleum: how humans took control of climate. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University
Sanders, K. 2005. After Oklahoma City: A Grieving Grandmother Uncovers Shocking Truths about the bombing and Herself. Arlington, TX: Master Strategies.
Stern, J., 2000. The Ultimate Terrorists. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press
Tuathail, G., (1998) De‐Territorialized threats and global dangers: Geopolitics and risk society. Geopolitics, 3:1, 17-31
Victor, D. G. et al., 2005. A Madisonian Approach to Climate Policy. Science 309: 1820–1821.
Weart, S., 2013. The Rise of Nuclear Fear. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012
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